Q1. a) What are the two criteria for classification
of the advanced operating systems? Discuss any two operating systems in
both the categories.
Answer : - Advanced Operating Systems
- Architecture Driven System
- Network Operating System
- Distributed Operating System
- Multiprocessor Operating System
- Application Driven System
- Database Operating System
- Real-Time Operating System
- Multimedia Operating System
Network Operating System
A network operating system is a specialized operating system for a network device such as a router, switch or firewall.
Historically operating systems with networking capabilities were described as network operating system, because they allowed personal computers (PCs) to participate in computer networks and shared file and printer access within a local area network (LAN).
Network operating systems can be embedded in a router or hardware firewall that operates the functions in the network layer (layer 3).
Some important Network OS are listed below -
- Cisco IOS - Cisco Internet work
Operating System (IOS) is a family of network operating systems used on
many Cisco Systems routers and current Cisco network switches. Earlier,
Cisco switches ran Cat OS. IOS is a package of routing, switching,
internet working and telecommunications functions integrated into a
multitasking operating system.
- Cisco NX-OS - NX-OS is a
network operating system for the Nexus-series Ethernet switches and
MDS-series fibre Channel storage area network switches made by Cisco
Systems.
- AppleShare - Apple Share was a
product from Apple Computer which implemented various network services.
Its main purpose was to act as a file server, using the AFP protocol.
Distributed Operating System
A Distributed Operating System is an operating system that runs on a network of computers.
In a Distributed Operating System, each user thinks that running on a single large system with one operating system. The users don’t need to know where the files in the network.
Advantages
- Failure of one system will not affect the other network communication, because all systems are independent from each other.
- Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast.
- The data exchange speed is increased by using electronic mails.
- Load on host computer reduces.
- These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the network.
- Delay in data processing reduces.
- Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication.
- To establish distributed systems the language which are used are not well defined yet.
- They are very expensive.
- The underlying software is highly complex.
Real-Time Operating System
Real time system means that the system is subjected to real time, i.e., response should be guaranteed within a specified timing constraint or system should meet the specified deadline. For example: missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots etc.
There are two types of Real-Time Operating System -
- Hard Real-Time Systems - Hard
Real-Time Systems are require for the applications where time
constraints are very strict and even the shortest possible delay is not
acceptable. These systems are built for saving life like automatic
parachutes or air bags which are required to be readily available in
case of any accident.
In hard real-time systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual memory is almost never found.
- Soft Real-Time Systems - Soft
real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets
priority over other tasks and retains the priority until it completes.
Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard real-time systems.
For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects
like undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.
Q1. b) Discuss the key characteristics of modern operating systems.
Answer : - Multi-threading - Multi-threading is the ability of a program or an operating system process to manage its use by more than one user at a time and to even manage multiple requests by the same user without having to have multiple copies of the programming running in the computer. The process is divided into threads that can run simultaneously.
Symmetric Multi-processing - In Symmetric Multi-processing system a computer has more than one processor. These processors can share the same memory, data path, I/O facilities and also the same job for execution.
Advantages of Symmetric Multiprocessing -
- The throughput of the system is increased in symmetric
multiprocessing. As there are multiple processors, more processes are
executed.
- Symmetric multiprocessing systems are much more reliable
than single processor systems. Even if a processor fails, the system
still endures. Only its efficiency is decreased a little.
Micro-Kernel Architecture - Kernel is the core part of an operating system which manages system resources. It also acts like a bridge between application and hardware of the computer. It is one of the first programs loaded on start-up (after the Boot loader).
A Micro-Kernel is the minimum software that is required to correctly implement an operating system. This includes memory management, process scheduling mechanisms and basic inter-process communication.
Object-Oriented Design - It is used for adding modular extensions to a small kernel. It also enables programmers to customize an operating system without disrupting system integrity.
Q2. Discuss the objectives and primary functions of the following connecting devices :
- Hubs
- Routers
Hubs
If multiple incoming connections need to be connected with multiple outgoing connections, then a hub is required. In data communications, a hub is a place of convergence where data arrives from one or more directions and is forwarded out in one or more other directions. Hubs are multi-port repeaters, and as such they obey the same rules as repeaters. They operate at the OSI Model Physical Layer. Hubs are used to provide a physical Star Topology.
Routers
In an environment consisting of several network segments with different protocols and architecture, a bridge may not be adequate for ensuring fast communication among all of the segments. A complex network needs a device which not only knows the address of each segment, but also can determine the best path for sending data and filtering broadcast traffic to the local segment. Such a device is called a Router. Routers are both hardware and software devices. Router operates at the Network Layer of the OSI Model.
Q3. Explain virtual to physical address mapping concepts with the help of an abstract model.
Answer : - Your computer has two types
of memory, Random Access Memory (RAM) and Virtual Memory. All programs
use RAM, but when there isn't enough RAM for the program you're trying
to run, Windows temporarily moves information that would normally be
stored in RAM to a file on your hard disk called a Paging File. The
amount of information temporarily stored in a paging file is also
referred to as virtual memory. Using virtual memory, in other words,
moving information to and from the paging file, frees up enough RAM for
programs to run correctly.A virtual address does not represent the actual physical location of an object in memory; instead, the system maintains a page table for each process, which is an internal data structure used to translate virtual addresses into their corresponding physical addresses. Each time a thread references an address, the system translates the virtual address to a physical address.
The address translation between virtual and physical memory is done by the CPU using page tables which contain all the information that the CPU needs. Typically there is a page table for every process in the system. Above figure shows a simple mapping between virtual addresses and physical addresses using page tables for Process X and Process Y. This shows that Process X’s virtual PFN 0 is mapped into memory in physical PFN 3 and that Process Y’s virtual PFN 2 is mapped into physical PFN 5. Each entry in the theoretical page table contains the following information :
- The virtual PFN,
- The physical PFN that it maps to,
- Access control information for that page.
Q4. Describe important Linux directories and files.
Answer : -
- / – Root
- Every single file and directory starts from the root directory.
- Only root user has write privilege under this directory.
- Please note that /root is root user’s home directory, which is not same as /.
- /bin – User Binaries
- Contains binary executables.
- Common linux commands you need to use in single-user modes are located under this directory.
- Commands used by all the users of the system are located here. For example : ls, ping, grep, cp, etc.
- /boot – Boot Loader Files
- Contains boot loader related files.
- Kernel initrd, vmlinux, grub files are located under /boot. For example : initrd.img-2.6.32-24-generic, vmlinuz-2.6.32-24-generic.
- /dev – Device Files
- Contains device files.
- These include terminal devices, usb, or any device attached to the system. For example: /dev/tty1, /dev/usbmon0, etc.
- /etc – Configuration Files
- Contains configuration files required by all programs.
- This also contains startup and shutdown shell scripts used to start/stop individual programs. For example: /etc/resolv.conf, /etc/logrotate.conf, etc.
- /home – Home Directories
- Home directories for all users to store their personal files. For example: /home/debabrata, /home/amit, etc.
- /lib – System Libraries
- Contains library files that supports the binaries located under /bin and /sbin
- Library filenames are either ld* or lib*.so.*, for example: ld-2.11.1.so, libncurses.so.5.7, etc.
- /media – Removable Media Devices
- Temporary mount directory for removable devices. For examples, /media/cdrom for CD-ROM, /media/floppy for floppy drives, /media/cdrecorder for CD writer, etc.
- /mnt – Mount Directory
- Temporary mount directory where sysadmins can mount filesystems.
- /opt – Optional add-on Applications
- opt stands for optional.
- Contains add-on applications from individual vendors.
- add-on applications should be installed under either /opt/ or /opt/ sub-directory.
- /proc
- Contains information about system process.
- This is a pseudo filesystem contains information about running process. For example : /proc/{pid} directory contains information about the process with that particular pid.
- This is a virtual filesystem with text information about system resources. For example : /proc/uptime
- /sbin – System Binaries
- Just like /bin, /sbin also contains binary executables.
- Linux commands located under this directory are used typically by system aministrator, for system maintenance purpose. For example : reboot, fdisk, ifconfig, etc.
- /srv – Service Data
- srv stands for service.
- Contains server specific services related data. For example, /srv/cvs contains CVS related data.
- /tmp – Temporary Files
- Directory that contains temporary files created by system and users.
- Files under this directory are deleted when system is rebooted.
- /usr – User Programs
- Contains binaries, libraries, documentation, and source-code for second level programs.
- /usr/bin contains binary files for user programs. If you can’t find a user binary under /bin, look under /usr/bin. For example : at, awk, less, etc.
- /usr/sbin contains binary files for system administrators. If you can’t find a system binary under /sbin, look under /usr/sbin. For example: sshd, useradd, userdel, etc.
- /usr/lib contains libraries for /usr/bin and /usr/sbin
- /usr/local contains users programs that you install from source. For example, when you install apache from source, it goes under /usr/local/apache2
- /usr/src holds the Linux kernel sources, header-files and documentation.
- /var – Variable Files
- Content of the files that are expected to grow can be found under this directory.
- This includes — system log files (/var/log); packages and database files (/var/lib), emails (/var/mail); print queues (/var/spool), lock files (/var/lock), temp files needed across reboots (/var/tmp), etc.
Q5. a) What will be the output of followings?
Answer : - Consider that the "myfile.text" contains the following lines -Motherboard
Processor
RAM
Monitor
Hard Disk
DVD Writer
Graphic Card
RAM
Motherboard
Hard Disk
mohan play football
$ cat myfile.text | head -7 | tail -5
Answer : - Print the last 5 lines from the first 7 lines of the "myfile.text" file| root@UBUNTU-PC:/MyDirectory# cat myfile.text | head -7 | tail -5
RAM Monitor Hard Disk DVD Writer Graphic Card root@UBUNTU-PC:/MyDirectory# |
$ cat filename | more ls -l > temp
Answer : -
$ sort myfile.text | unique
Answer : - Wrong Command
Right command is - sort myfile.text | uniq
First sort the file contents alphabetically, then remove the duplicate lines.
| root@UBUNTU-PC:/MyDirectory# sort myfile.text | uniq
DVD Writer Graphic Card Hard Disk mohan play football Monitor Motherboard Processor RAM root@UBUNTU-PC:/MyDirectory# |
$ cat myfile.text | grep “mohan” | wc -l
Answer : - Count the number of lines present in the "myfile.text" file which contains the particular pattern "mohan".
| root@UBUNTU-PC:/MyDirectory# cat myfile.text | grep “mohan” | wc -l
1 root@UBUNTU-PC:/MyDirectory# |
$ ls -l | grep “jan”
Answer : - Display the detailed list of all the files and directories which name is contain the pattern "jan"
Q5. b) What options can be used with grep command?
Answer : - Option which can be used with grep commandOptions Description -c : This prints only a count of the lines that match a pattern -h : Display the matched lines, but do not display the filenames. -i : Ignores, case for matching -l : Displays list of a filenames only. -n : Display the matched lines and their line numbers. -v : This prints out all the lines that do not matches the pattern -e exp : Specifies expression with this option. Can use multiple times. -f file : Takes patterns from file, one per line. -E : Treats pattern as an extended regular expression (ERE) -w : Match whole word -o : Print only the matched parts of a matching line, with each such part on a separate output line.
Q6. Briefly describe the features of followings and how are they configured in Linux?
- Apache web server
- DNS
- NFS server
(i) Apache Web Server
Apache is the most widely used Web Server application in UNIX-like operating systems but can be used on almost all platforms such as Windows, OS X, etc.
The reasons behind its popularity are :
- It is free to download and install.
- It is open source - the source code is visible to anyone and everyone, which basically enables anyone to adjust the code, optimize it, and fix errors and security holes. People can add new features and write new modules.
- It can be used for small websites of one or two pages, or huge websites of hundreds and thousands of pages, serving millions of regular visitors each month. It can serve both static and dynamic content.
(ii) DNS
Domain Name System is an Internet service that translates domain names into IP addresses. Since domain names are alphabetic, they are easier to remember. The Internet however, is really based on IP addresses. Every time you use a domain name, therefore, a DNS service must translate the name into the corresponding IP address. For example, the domain name www.------.com might translate to 198.60.136.3
A domain name is divided into three part -
- Top Level Domain - A top-level
domain recognizes a certain element regarding the associated website,
such as its objective (business, government, education), its owner, or
the geographical area from which it originated.
Generic Top Level Domains
Country-Code Top Level DomainsTDL Description .com Commercial .edu Education .gov U.S. national and state government agencies .int International Organizations .mil U.S. military .net Network .org Organization
etc.TDL Description .in India .ru Russia .de Germany .au Australia .uk United Kingdom .cn China .br Brazil .fr France
Sponsored Top Level Domains
TDL Description .aero Members of the air-transport industry .coop Cooperative associations .jobs Human resource managers .museum Museums .post Postal services .tel For businesses and individuals to publish contact data .travel Travel agents, airlines, tourism bureaus, etc. .mobi Providers and consumers of mobile products and services .cat Catalan linguistic and cultural community .xxx Pornographic sites
(iii) NFS Server
A network file system (NFS) is a type of file system mechanism that enables the storage and retrieval of data from multiple disks and directories across a shared network. It enables local users to access remote data and files in the same way they are accessed locally. NFS was initially developed by Sun Microsystems.
Q7. What are the purposes of dynamic addressing and directory services in Windows 2000? How are they configured?
Answer : - Windows 2000 runs on TCP/IP, and to utilize AD, you must forsake the older Windows Internet Naming Service (WINS) technology in favor of DNS. WINS can still be useful on Windows 2000 networks, especially if you have non-Windows 2000 or XP clients. However, Active Directory will not use WINS for name resolution.The biggest downside to DNS has been that although distributed, it was still designed as a system that requires manual updates. Whenever a new host is added to a domain, an administrator needs to manually update the zone database on the primary DNS server to reference the new host. If there are secondary name servers on the network, the changes are replicated in a zone transfer.
However, a dynamic updating feature proposed in RFC 2136 provides the means for updating a zone's primary server automatically. Windows 2000 supports this new dynamic DNS, or simply DDNS. The caveat is that it works only with Windows 2000 clients, and older Windows NT, Windows 9X, and non-Windows clients still require manual updates, or at minimum, a Windows 2000 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) proxy to act on their behalf during the dynamic registration process. When DDNS is enabled and Windows 2000 boots up and contacts a DHCP proxy for IP addressing information, it automatically sends an update to the name server it has been configured to use, adding its Address (A) resource record. This greatly simplifies the administration of DNS on a Windows 2000 network. In addition, DDNS simplifies the administration of AD by allowing domain controllers (DCs) to automatically register their Service (SRV) resource records into DNS without administrator intervention. It is important to note that, by default, DHCP will not automatically update DNS; you have to configure DHCP explicitly to update DNS by editing its properties and checking the box labeled Enable Updates for Clients That Do Not Support Dynamic Updates.
Q8. What is the purpose of VPN and name VPN technologies supported by Windows 2000?
Answer : - A virtual private network,
or VPN, is an encrypted connection over the Internet from a device to a
network. The encrypted connection helps ensure that sensitive data is
safely transmitted. It prevents unauthorized people from eavesdropping
on the traffic and allows the user to conduct work remotely. VPN
technology is widely used in corporate environments.A VPN extends a corporate network through encrypted connections made over the Internet. Because the traffic is encrypted between the device and the network, traffic remains private as it travels. An employee can work outside the office and still securely connect to the corporate network. Even smartphones and tablets can connect through a VPN.
Types of VPNs
- Remote access - A remote access
VPN securely connects a device outside the corporate office. These
devices are known as endpoints and may be laptops, tablets, or
smartphones. Advances in VPN technology have allowed security checks to
be conducted on endpoints to make sure they meet a certain posture
before connecting. Think of remote access as computer to network.
- Site-to-Site - A
Site-to-Site VPN connects the corporate office to branch offices over
the Internet. Site-to-Site VPNs are used when distance makes it
impractical to have direct network connections between these offices.
Dedicated equipment is used to establish and maintain a connection.
Think of Site-to-Site access as network to network.
- PPTP - Point to Point Tunneling
Protocol (PPTP) is one of the oldest protocol by Microsoft. It is the
fastest of all VPN protocols. It is ideal for applications where speed
is important such as streaming and gaming. But, PPTP is not as secure
because of its weak encryption. PPTP uses the TCP port 1723 for
communication.
- L2TP/IPsec - L2TP over IPsec
is more secure than PPTP and offers more features. L2TP/IPsec is a way
of implementing two protocols together in order to gain the best
features of each.
The data transmitted via the L2TP/IPSec protocol is usually authenticated twice. Each data packet transmitted via the tunnel includes L2TP headers. As a result, the data is de-multiplexed by the server. The double authentication of the data slows down performance, but it does provide the highest security.
Q9. What are Intrusion Detection Systems(IDS)? What IDS can do?
Answer : - An Intrusion Detection
System (IDS) is a type of security software designed to automatically
alert administrators when someone or something is trying to compromise
information system through malicious activities or through security
policy violations.IDS is basically classified into two types :
- Network Intrusion Detection System (NIDS)
Network intrusion detection systems (NIDS) are set up at a planned point within the network to examine traffic from all devices on the network. It performs an observation of passing traffic on the entire subnet and matches the traffic that is passed on the subnets to the collection of known attacks. Once an attack is identified or abnormal behavior is observed, the alert can be sent to the administrator. An example of an NIDS is installing it on the subnet where firewalls are located in order to see if someone is trying crack the firewall.
- Host Intrusion Detection System (HIDS)
Host intrusion detection systems (HIDS) run on independent hosts or devices on the network. A HIDS monitors the incoming and outgoing packets from the device only and will alert the administrator if suspicious or malicious activity is detected. It takes a snapshot of existing system files and compares it with the previous snapshot. If the analytical system files were edited or deleted, an alert is sent to the administrator to investigate.
- Signature-based Method - Signature-based
IDS detects the attacks on the basis of the specific patterns such as
number of bytes or number of 1’s or number of 0’s in the network
traffic. It also detects on the basis of the already known malicious
instruction sequence that is used by the malware. The detected patterns
in the IDS are known as signatures.
Signature-based IDS can easily detect the attacks whose pattern (signature) already exists in system but it is quite difficult to detect the new malware attacks as their pattern (signature) is not known.
- Anomaly-based Method - Anomaly-based
IDS was introduced to detect the unknown malware attacks as new malware
are developed rapidly. In anomaly-based IDS there is use of machine
learning to create a trustful activity model and anything coming is
compared with that model and it is declared suspicious if it is not
found in model. Machine learning based method has a better generalized
property in comparison to signature-based IDS as these models can be
trained according to the applications and hardware configurations.
Q10. Elaborate the primary aspects of firewall? What are the limitations of firewall?
Answer : - A firewall is a network
security system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a
private network. Firewalls can be implemented as both hardware and
software, or a combination of both. Network firewalls are frequently
used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing private
networks connected to the Internet, especially intranets. All messages
entering or leaving the intranet pass through the firewall, which
examines each message and blocks those that do not meet the specified
security criteria.Firewalls can be either hardware or software but the ideal configuration will consist of both. In addition to limiting access to your computer and network, a firewall is also useful for allowing remote access to a private network through secure authentication certificates and logins.
Firewall Filtering Techniques
Firewalls are used to protect both home and corporate networks. A typical firewall program or hardware device filters all information coming through the Internet to your network or computer system. There are several types of firewall techniques that will prevent potentially harmful information from getting through :
- Packet Filter - Looks at each
packet entering or leaving the network and accepts or rejects it based
on user-defined rules. Packet filtering is fairly effective and
transparent to users, but it is difficult to configure. In addition, it
is susceptible to IP spoofing.
- Application Gateway - Applies
security mechanisms to specific applications, such as FTP and Telnet
servers. This is very effective, but can impose a performance
degradation.
- Circuit-level Gateway - Applies
security mechanisms when a TCP or UDP connection is established. Once
the connection has been made, packets can flow between the hosts without
further checking.
- Proxy Server - Intercepts all messages entering and leaving the network. The proxy server effectively hides the true network addresses.
Limitations of Firewall
- Firewalls cannot protect against what has been authorized.
- It cannot stop attacks if the traffic does not pass through them.
- They are only as effective as the rules they are configured to enforce.
- The firewall cannot protect against the transfer of
virus-infected programs or files. Because of the variety of operating
systems and applications supported inside the perimeter, it would be
impractical and perhaps impossible for the firewall to scan all incoming
files, e-mail, and messages for viruses.
- The firewall does not protect against internal threats,
such as a disgruntled employee or an employee who unwittingly cooperates
with an external attacker.
Q11. How does RAID support fault tolerance systems? How is it implemented in Windows 2000?
Answer : - Fault-tolerance is the ability to survive of one or several disk failures.RAID is a technology that is used to increase the performance and/or reliability of data storage. RAID stands for Redundant Array of Independent Disks. A RAID system consists of two or more drives working in parallel. There are different RAID levels, each optimized for a specific situation.
- RAID 0 – striping
- RAID 1 – mirroring
- RAID 5 – striping with parity
- RAID 6 – striping with double parity
- RAID 10 – combining mirroring and striping
RAID 0 – striping
In a RAID 0 system data are split up into blocks that get written across all the drives in the array. By using multiple disks (at least 2) at the same time, this offers superior I/O performance. This performance can be enhanced further by using multiple controllers, ideally one controller per disk.
Advantages
- RAID 0 offers great performance, both in read and write operations. There is no overhead caused by parity controls.
- All storage capacity is used, there is no overhead.
- RAID 0 is not fault-tolerant. If one drive fails, all data in the RAID 0 array are lost. It should not be used for mission-critical systems.
RAID 1 – mirroring
Data are stored twice by writing them to both the data drive (or set of data drives) and a mirror drive (or set of mirror drives). If a drive fails, the controller uses either the data drive or the mirror drive for data recovery and continues operation. You need at least 2 drives for a RAID 1 array.
Advantages
- RAID 1 offers excellent read speed and a write-speed that is comparable to that of a single drive.
- In case a drive fails, data do not have to be rebuild, they just have to be copied to the replacement drive.
- The main disadvantage is that the effective storage capacity is only half of the total drive capacity because all data get written twice.
- Software RAID 1 solutions do not always allow a hot swap of a failed drive. That means the failed drive can only be replaced after powering down the computer it is attached to. For servers that are used simultaneously by many people, this may not be acceptable. Such systems typically use hardware controllers that do support hot swapping.
RAID 5 – striping with parity
RAID 5 is the most common secure RAID level. It requires at least 3 drives but can work with up to 16 drives. Data blocks are striped across the drives and on one drive a parity checksum of all the block data is written. The parity data are not written to a fixed drive, they are spread across all drives. Using the parity data, the computer can recalculate the data of one of the other data blocks, should those data no longer be available. That means a RAID 5 array can withstand a single drive failure without losing data or access to data.
Advantages
- Read data transactions are very fast while write data transactions are somewhat slower (due to the parity that has to be calculated).
- If a drive fails, you still have access to all data, even while the failed drive is being replaced and the storage controller rebuilds the data on the new drive.
- Drive failures have an effect on throughput, although this is still acceptable.
- This is complex technology. If one of the disks in an array using 4TB disks fails and is replaced, restoring the data (the rebuild time) may take a day or longer, depending on the load on the array and the speed of the controller. If another disk goes bad during that time, data are lost forever.
RAID 6 – striping with double parity
RAID 6 is like RAID 5, but the parity data are written to two drives. That means it requires at least 4 drives and can withstand 2 drives dying simultaneously. The chances that two drives break down at exactly the same moment are of course very small. However, if a drive in a RAID 5 systems dies and is replaced by a new drive, it takes hours or even more than a day to rebuild the swapped drive. If another drive dies during that time, you still lose all of your data. With RAID 6, the RAID array will even survive that second failure.
Advantages
- Like with RAID 5, read data transactions are very fast.
- If two drives fail, you still have access to all data, even while the failed drives are being replaced. So RAID 6 is more secure than RAID 5.
- Write data transactions are slower than RAID 5 due to the additional parity data that have to be calculated.
- Drive failures have an effect on throughput, although this is still acceptable.
- This is complex technology. Rebuilding an array in which one drive failed can take a long time.
RAID 10 – combining mirroring and striping
It is possible to combine the advantages (and disadvantages) of RAID 0 and RAID 1 in one single system. This is a nested or hybrid RAID configuration. It provides security by mirroring all data on secondary drives while using striping across each set of drives to speed up data transfers.
Advantages
- If something goes wrong with one of the disks in a RAID 10 configuration, the rebuild time is very fast since all that is needed is copying all the data from the surviving mirror to a new drive.
- Half of the storage capacity goes to mirroring, so compared to large RAID 5 or RAID 6 arrays, this is an expensive way to have redundancy.
Q12. List the different types of malicious code and compare the virus protection tools.
Answer : - Malicious software is any
software that the user did not authorize to be loaded or software that
collects data about a user without their permission.Different Types of Malicious Software
- Spyware - Spyware is any
technology that aids in gathering information about a person or
organization without their knowledge. They can monitor and log the
activity performed on a target system, like log key strokes, or gather
credit card and other information.
- Virus - A computer virus is a
piece of software that can 'infect' a computer, install itself and copy
itself to other computers, without the users knowledge or permission.
It usually attaches itself to other computer programs, data files, or
the boot sector of a Hard drive.
- Worm - Unlike a virus, a
worm, is a standalone piece of malicious software that replicates itself
in order to spread to other computers. It often uses a computer network
to spread itself, relying on security flaws on the target system to
allow access.
- Trojan (Trojan Horse) - A
type of malware that uses malicious code to install software that seems
ok, but is hidden to create back doors into a system typically causing
loss or theft of data from an external source.
- Adware - Adware is software
which can automatically causes pop-up and banner adverts to be displayed
in order to generate revenue for its author or publisher. A lot of
freeware will use Adware but not always in a malicious way, if it was
malicious, it would then be classed as spyware or malware.
- Rootkit - Rootkit Virus
assists a hacker in remotely accessing or controlling a computing device
or network without being exposed. They are hard to detect due to the
reason that they become active even before the system’s OS is booted up.
Q13. What is Kerberos? Describe Kerberos management in Windows operating system.
Answer : - Kerberos is a
ticketing-based authentication system, based on the use of symmetric
keys. Kerberos uses tickets to provide authentication to resources
instead of passwords. This eliminates the threat of password stealing
via network sniffing. One of the biggest benefits of Kerberos is its
ability to provide single sign-on (SSO). Once you log into your Kerberos
environment, you will be automatically logged into other applications
in the environment.To help provide a secure environment, Kerberos makes use of Mutual Authentication. In Mutual Authentication, both the server and the client must be authenticated. The client knows that the server can be trusted, and the server knows that the client can be trusted. This authentication helps prevent man-in-the-middle attacks and spoofing. Kerberos is also time sensitive. The tickets in a Kerberos environment must be renewed periodically or they will expire.
When a user needs to access a service protected by Kerberos, the Kerberos protocol process can be divided into two phases - User Identity Authentication and Service Access.
User Identity Authentication - User authentication is a process of checking validity of identity information provided by users in the Kerberos authentication service. Identity information can be user names and passwords or information that can provide real identities in other forms. If user information passes the validity check, the Kerberos authentication service returns a valid Ticket-Granting Ticket (TGT) token, proving that the user has passed identity authentication. The user uses the TGT in the subsequent Service Access process.
Service Access - When the user needs to access a service, the user requests the Ticket-Granting Service (TGS) from the Kerberos server based on the TGT obtained in the first phase, providing the name of the service to be accessed. TGS checks the TGT and information about the service to be accessed. After the information passes the check, TGS returns a Service-Granting Ticket (SGT) token to the user. The user requests the component service based on the SGT and related user authentication information. The component service decrypts the SGT information in a symmetrical way and finishes user authentication. If the user passes the authentication process, the user can successfully access related resources of the service.
Kerberos in Windows Systems
Kerberos is very prevalent in the Windows environment. In fact, Windows 2000 and later use Kerberos as the default method of authentication. When you install your Active Directory domain, the domain controller is also the Key Distribution Center. In order to use Kerberos in a Windows environment, your client system must be a part of the Windows domain. Kerberos is used when accessing file servers, Web servers, and other network resources. When you attempt to access a Web server, Windows will try to sign you in using Kerberos. If Kerberos authentication does not work, then the system will fall back to NTLM authentication.
Q14. Define IPSec? What are its features? Discuss its implementation in Windows 2000.
Answer : - Exchanging sensitive
information across a network, especially a public network, requires a
security method that will protect the data in transit. That’s where
Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) comes in. IPSec is a set of protocols
that allows you to sign and encrypt data to be sent across an IP
network, and authenticate and decrypt the protected packets on the
receiving end. Windows 2000 Professional and Server include IPSec.What is IPSec ?
IPSec is a set of protocols and cryptography-based services that work together to protect data from unauthorized access or tampering when it is sent across an IP network. IPSec provides three basic services :
- Authentication - Confirmation of the origin of the IP packet; verification that the purported sender actually sent it.
- Integrity - “Signing” of the packet to ensure that the data has not been changed in any way between the time it left the sender and the time it was received at the authorized destination.
- Confidentiality - Encryption of the data to render is unreadable without the correct key.
Implementation of IPSec in Windows 2000
Windows 2000’s implementation of IPSec provides a high level of security, using a combination of algorithms and keys to encrypt the data so that it will be unreadable if intercepted along its route. IPSec uses two protocols to accomplish these tasks :
- Authentication Header (AH) - This
protocol provides authentication services for IPsec. It allows the
recipient of a message to verify the identity of the sender. It also
allows the recipient to verify that intermediate devices haven’t changed
any of the data in the datagram. It also provides protection against
so-called replay attacks, whereby a message is captured by an
unauthorized user and resent.
- Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) - AH
provides integrity authentication services to IPsec-capable devices so
that they can verify that messages are received intact from other
devices. For many applications, however, this is only one piece of the
puzzle. We want to not only protect against intermediate devices
changing the data grams, but also to protect against them examining their
contents as well. For this level of private communication, AH is not
enough; we need to use the ESP protocol.
The main job of ESP is to provide the privacy we seek for IP data grams by encrypting them. An encryption algorithm combines the data in the datagram with a key to transform it into an encrypted form. This is then repackaged using a special format, and then transmitted to the destination, which decrypts it using the same algorithm.
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